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What did Louis XVIs financial advisor tell him to do?

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French statesman

Jacques Necker
Necker, Jacques - Duplessis.jpg
Chief Minister of the French Monarch
In office
29 July 1789 – 3 September 1790
Monarch Louis XVI
Preceded by Baron of Breteuil
Succeeded by Count of Montmorin
In function
25 August 1788 – eleven July 1789
Monarch Louis Sixteen
Preceded by Archbishop de Brienne
Succeeded by Baron of Breteuil
Controller-General of Finances
In office
25 August 1788 – eleven July 1789
Monarch Louis XVI
Preceded by Charles Alexandre de Calonne
Succeeded by Joseph Foullon de Doué
Director-Full general of the Royal Treasury
In office
29 June 1777 – 19 May 1781
Monarch Louis XVI
Preceded by Louis Gabriel Taboureau des Réaux
Succeeded by Jean-François Joly de Fleury
Personal details
Born (1732-09-xxx)30 September 1732
Geneva,[1] Republic of Geneva
Died ix April 1804(1804-04-09) (aged 71)
Geneva, Léman (department), Consular France
Spouse(southward)

Suzanne Curchod

​

​

(thousand. 1764; died 1794)​
Children Germaine
Signature

Jacques Necker (IPA: [ʒak nɛkɛʁ]; 30 September 1732 – 9 April 1804) was a Genevan banker and statesman who served as finance minister for Louis Sixteen.[2]

Necker held the finance mail service between July 1777 and 1781,[iii] being "remembered today for taking the unprecedented step in 1781 of making public the country'due south upkeep, a novelty in an absolute monarchy where the state of finances had always been kept a secret."[four] Necker was dismissed inside a few months. By 1788 the inexorable compounding of interest on the national debt brought French republic to a financial crisis.[five] Necker was recalled to purple service. His dismissal on eleven July 1789 was a gene in causing the Storming of the Bastille. Inside two days Necker was recalled by the king and the assembly. Necker entered French republic in triumph and tried to accelerate the tax reform process. Faced with the opposition of the Elective Assembly he resigned in September 1790 to a reaction of general indifference.

Necker was a constitutional monarchist, a political economist, and a moralist, who wrote a severe critique of the new principle of equality earlier the law.[half dozen]

Early life [edit]

Necker was born in Geneva in a Calvinist household. In 1747 Jacques became a clerk in the depository financial institution of Thellusson and Vernet. In 1750 he was sent to Paris and worked for the bank Girardot. Before long subsequently he managed to learn Dutch and English language. On one twenty-four hour period, he replaced the first clerk in accuse of trading on the stock substitution, and through a sequence of trades, he fabricated a quick profit of half a meg.[7] In 1762, Vernet retired and Necker became a partner in the banking concern with Peter Thellusson who managed the bank in London, while Necker served as his managing partner in Paris. In 1763, before the end of the Seven Years' War, he successfully speculated in British debentures or bonds, wheat, and possibly Canadian shares, which he sold at a good turn a profit in the adjacent few years.[eight]

Necker had fallen in love with Madame de Verménou, the widow of a French officeholder. When she went to see Théodore Tronchin, she became acquainted with Suzanne Curchod. In 1764, Madame de Verménou brought Suzanne to Paris equally a companion for Thelusson's children. Suzanne was engaged to British author Edward Gibbon, but he was forced to break the engagement. Necker transferred his beloved from the wealthy widow to the ambitious Swiss governess. They married before the end of the year. In 1766, they moved to Rue de Cléry and had a girl, Anne Louise Germaine, subsequently the famed author and salonnière Madame de Staël.

Madame Necker encouraged her husband to try to find himself a public position. He accordingly became a syndic (or managing director) of the French E India Visitor, effectually which a fierce political debate revolved in the 1760s between the company'southward directors and shareholders and the purple ministry over its administration and the company's autonomy.[nine] After showing his financial ability in its direction, Necker defended the company's autonomy in an able memoir against the attacks of Morellet in 1769.[x] As the visitor never fabricated whatsoever profit during its existence, the monopoly ended.[xi] The era of costless trade had begun.[12] Necker bought up the company's ships and stock of unsold goods when it went bankrupt in 1769.

From 1768 till 1776 he fabricated loans to the French government in the course of life annuities and by lottery operations.[xiii] [fourteen] His married woman made him give upwards his share in the bank, which he transferred to his brother Louis Necker and Jean Girardot in 1772. In 1773, Necker won the prize of the Académie Française for a defence force of state corporatism framed equally an eulogy in honor of Louis XIV's minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert. Necker'due south uppercase amounted to six or eight million livres, and he used Château de Madrid as a summer firm. In 1775, in Essai sur la législation et le commerce des grains, he attacked the physiocrats, like Ferdinando Galiani, and questioned the laissez-faire policies of Turgot, the Controller-General of Finances. Turgot had made too many enemies; in May 1776, he was dismissed. But his successor, Clugny de Nuis, died in Oct.[fifteen] [16] Therefore, on 22 October 1776, on the recommendation of Maurepas, Necker was appointed "Directeur du trésor royal". (As a Protestant, Necker could non serve as Controller.)[17]

Finance Government minister of French republic [edit]

Necker, Jacques, par Boillet, BNF Gallica.jpg

On 29 June 1777, according to his daughter in her "Vie privée de Mr. Necker" he was fabricated managing director-general of the royal treasury and not Controller-General of Finance which was impossible because of his Protestant faith.[18] [19] Necker refused a salary, but he was not admitted to the Purple Council. He gained popularity through regulating the government's finances by attempting to separate the taille and the capitation tax more equally, abolishing a tax known as the vingtième d'industrie, (a value-added tax) and establishing monts de piété (pawnshop-similar establishments for loaning money on security). Necker tried through careful reforms (abolition of pensions, mortmain, droit de suite and more than fair taxation) to rehabilitate the disorganized country budget. He abolished over five hundred sinecures and superfluous posts.[twenty] Together with his married woman, he visited and improved life in hospitals and prisons. In April 1778 he remitted two.4 million livres from his own fortune to the regal treasury.[21] [22] Unlike Turgot - in his Mémoire sur les municipalités - Necker tried to install provincial assemblies and hoped they could serve as an effective means of reforming the Ancien régime. Necker succeeded only in Berry and Haute-Guyenne installing assemblies with an equal number of members from the Third estate.

His greatest financial measures were his use of loans to help fund the French debt and his utilize of high interest rates rather than raising taxes.[23] The collection of indirect taxes was restored to the farmers-full general (1780), only Necker reduced their number past a third and subjected them to sharper scrutiny and control.[24] The American War of independence was popular with almost every Frenchman, except Necker.[25] For the first time the king waged a war without raising the taxes.[26] As France in the American Revolutionary War had financed its participation almost exclusively by municipal bonds, Necker warned of the consequences for the French national budget as the war connected. (The war had cost the country already ca. i.5 billion livres.) The ministers of War and Navy were especially hostile towards him.[27] In September 1780 Necker asked for his dismission, merely the Male monarch refused to let him go.[28]

Compte rendu au roi (Written report to the King) [edit]

Lombards Library 010.jpg

Portrait of Louis 16 (1784)

By 1781, France was suffering financially, and equally director-general of the royal treasury he was blamed for the rather high debt accrued from the American Revolution.[29] A series of pamphlets appeared.[30] Jacques-Mathieu Augeard attacked him on his foreign origin, his faith, and economic choices.[31] The main reason behind this was the action of Necker "cooking the books" or falsifying the records.[32] [33] He brightened the picture past excluding military outlays and other 'extraordinary' charges and ignoring the national debt.[34] [35] Both Necker and Calonne were deceived with the number of pensions and gratifications.[36] The king spent much more on his brothers than on public health. Afterward Necker had shown Louis XVI his almanac report, the male monarch tried to go along its contents hole-and-corner. Necker met the challenge aggressively by asking the King to bring him into the royal council. In revenge, Necker fabricated the Compte rendu au roi public; in no fourth dimension betwixt 200,000 copies were sold.[37] It was speedily translated into Dutch, High german, Danish, Italian and English language.

In his most influential piece of work, which brought him instant fame, Necker summarized governmental income and expenditures to provide the offset record of purple finances ever made public. The Account was meant to be an educational piece for the people, and in information technology, he expressed his want to create a well-informed, interested populace.[38] Before, the people had never considered governmental income and expenditure to exist their business organization, only the Compte rendu made them more proactive.

Maurepas became jealous and Vergennes called him a revolutionist. Necker alleged that he would resign unless given the full championship and say-so of a minister, with a seat on the Conseil du Roi. Both Maurepas and Vergennes replied that they would resign if this was done.[39] When Necker was dismissed on 19 May 1781, people of all stations flocked to his habitation at St. Ouen. Joseph II sent his condolences and Catherine the Not bad invited him to Russia.[40] In August 1781 Madame Necker went as far as Utrecht to buy the libels that appeared in the proper noun of Turgot confronting her husband. She even tried to have the booksellers arrested.[41] [42] [43] Did Necker and his brother receive annually viii one thousand thousand livres as a pension?[44] , In whatsoever case, Jacques bought an estate in Coppet and Louis in Cologny, both near Lake Geneva. In retirement, Necker, believing in "credible policy", occupied himself with law and economics, producing his famous Traité de l'assistants des finances de la French republic (1784). Calonne tried to forestall the spread in Paris.[45] Never had a work on such a serious a subject obtained such general success; 80.000 copies were sold.[46]

Charles-Alexandre de Calonne

In 1781 Congress appointed Robert Morris (financier) as Superintendent of Finance afterward the Usa went bankrupt. In 1783 Morris cut off involvement payments to France, its largest foreign creditor. Thomas Jefferson, who had succeeded Franklin as American government minister to France and John Adams as head of American finance in Europe in 1785, learned virtually the meeting between the Van Staphorsts' representatives and the French Minister of Finance only in November 1786, when he received a redacted document describing the Dutch offer from Étienne Clavière, a Genevan banker and pro-America.[47]

The Necker family returned to the Paris region, supposing they were present at the nuptials of their only girl Germaine in January 1786. The impending national defalcation of French republic acquired Calonne to convene an Assembly of notables under the elimination of parlements in order to enforce tax reforms. It had not met since 1626. One could non upshot new loans without the Parlements' approval.[48] In his speech communication Calonne expressed doubts about Necker's statistics in the Compte rendu. According to him, they were false and misleading,[49] [50] equally the country revenues had been revised upwards. For Calonne the French deficit was caused by Necker, who had not raised the taxes. However, Calonne got involved in several financial scandals regarding the "Calonne Visitor" and was dismissed past the rex on 8 Apr 1787.[51] On eleven April Necker replied on the charges fabricated by Calonne. 2 days later Louis XVI banished Necker by a lettre de cachet for his very public exchange of pamphlets.[52] [53]

After 2 months Necker was allowed to return to Paris. Necker published his: Nouveaux éclaircissement sur le compte rendu. Also Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans and his secretary Charles-Louis Ducrest came up with proposals.[54] The next minister of finance Loménie de Brienne resigned within fifteen months, on 24 Baronial 1788; the rex allowed him an enormous alimony.

On September seven, 1788, Paris was looking at famine, and Necker suspended the exportation of corn, purchased seventy million livres of wheat, and publicly reposted the decree of the Male monarch's Quango of April 23, 1789 allowing police to inspect granaries and private inventories of grain, but none of these efforts could solve the trouble.[55] In 1788 insurrections broke out in Brittany, Necker was sacked once again, and in a alphabetic character to Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, Marie-Antoinette took personal credit for forcing the king'southward hand on this affair, believing that Necker would lessen the King's authority and maxim "the moment is pressing. It is very essential that Necker should accept."[56]

On 25 or 26 August Necker was called back to office accompanied by fireworks. According to John Hardman Marie-Antoinette helped to organise Necker'due south render to power. This time he insisted on the title of Controller-General of Finances and access to the royal quango.[57] [58] [59] Necker was appointed equally Master government minister of France. He revoked the order of 16 Baronial requiring bondholders to accept newspaper instead of money; government bonds rose thirty% on the market. On 7 September Necker forbade the export of grain.[lx]

Nicolaas van Staphorst told Necker that the entire French debt might be redeemed without any loss through the Amsterdam capital markets. Necker, however, was strapped for cash and was willing to mind to any offers. The Van Staphorsts repeated their initial offer for the American bonds. Necker warmed to the proposal but asked for collateral and the sanction of a large investment bank. Necker decided that without collateral or the sanction of a major investment bank, the proposal was not acceptable. [61]

The bankers advanced the treasury sufficient funds to forestall a crunch over the next year. The wintertime of 1788-89 was one of the bitterest in history. In the summer of 1789 when the population suffered from dearth Necker intervened personally and successfully at the Amsterdam bank Hope & Co. to supply the 'King of France' with grain.[62] [63] The 2.4 million in the royal treasury he used as a collateral.[64] Necker'southward method sought a more limited monarchy along the English language constitutional and financial model.[65]

According to Peter Kropotkin, Necker "helped to milkshake down the system which was already tottering to its fall, but he was powerless to prevent the fall from becoming a revolution: probably he did non fifty-fifty perceive that it was impending."[66]

The one non-noble minister [edit]

Necker succeeded in doubling the representation of the 3rd Manor to satisfy the nation's people. The Third Estate had as many deputies as the other ii orders together. His address at the Estates-General on v May 1789 nearly the cardinal problems as financial health, constitutional monarchy, and institutional and political reforms lasted iii hours. Necker suffered from a cold and after xv minutes he asked the secretary of the Agricultural Society to read the remainder.[67] He invited the representatives to leave aside their factional interests and take into consideration the full general, long-term interests of the nation. Personal rivalries and radical claims had to give fashion to a pragmatic spirit of moderation and conciliation.[68] Necker's terminal sentence of the speech communication:

"Finally, gentlemen, you lot volition non be envious of what only time tin can achieve, and you will leave something for information technology to do. For if you attempt to reform everything that seems imperfect, your work will lead to poor results."[69]

Co-ordinate to Simon Schama, he "appeared to consider the Estates-General to be a facility designed to help the assistants rather than to reform government".[70] Two weeks later Necker seems to have sought to persuade the king to adopt a constitution similar to that of England and brash him in the strongest possible terms to brand the necessary concessions before it was too late.[71] According to François Mignet "He hoped to reduce the number of orders, and bring about the adoption of the English class of government, by uniting the clergy and dignity in one bedchamber, and the 3rd manor in another."[72] Necker warned the male monarch that unless the privileged orders yielded, the States-Full general would plummet, taxes would not be paid, and the government would be broke.[73]

On 17 June 1789, the commencement human action of the new National Assembly in revolutionary French republic alleged all existing taxes illegal. Necker had legitimate reasons to exist concerned nigh the implications of this unprecedented decision.[74] On 23 June the male monarch proposed to the royal council the dissolution of the Associates. On eleven July, the king advised Necker to leave the country immediately. According to Jean Luzac they went for a walk in a parc and from there got into their wagon to bulldoze to their manor in Saint-Ouen at seven in the evening.[75] When the news became known the next solar day information technology enraged Camille Desmoulins. Wax heads of Necker and the Duc d'Orléans were taken through the streets to the Tuileries. The Royal Guard allegedly chose to open up burn down rather than salute the likenesses.[76] The threat of a counter-revolution caused citizens to accept up arms and storm the Bastille on 14 July.[77] The king and the Assembly recalled the immensely popular Necker to a third ministry building in a letter dated 16 July.[78] Necker replied from Basle on the 23rd.[79] He wrote to his blood brother that he was going back to the abyss. His successor, the 74-year-old Joseph Foullon de Doué was hanged from a lamppost on the 22nd. His entry into Versailles on the 29th was a festival day;[80] he demanded a pardon for Baron de Besenval, who was imprisoned after given command of the troops concentrated in and around Paris early July.[81]

On August 4, 1789, the day when Feudalism was abolished by the National Assembly, Necker is quoted as saying, "The collectors of the taille are at their last shift."[82]

Assignats [edit]

Early on French banknote consequence by Domaines Nationaux - Assignat for 100 livres, 1790 Upshot

Necker proved to exist powerless equally tax revenue dropped quickly.[83] Credit was wrecked, according to Talleyrand; for Mirabeau "the arrears was the treasure of the nation" as it had made many changes possible. In September the treasury was empty.[84] According to Marat the whole famine was the piece of work of 1 homo, accusing Necker of buying up all the corn on every side, in order that Paris had none.[85] Talleyrand, the bishop of Autun proposed "national goods" should be given back to the nation.[86] In November 1789 ecclesiastical possessions were confiscated. Necker proposed to borrow from "Caisse d'Escompte", just his intention to change the individual bank into a national bank as the Depository financial institution of England failed.[87] [88] A general bankruptcy seemed certain.[89] [xc] Mirabeau proposed to LaFayette to overthrow Necker.[91] On 21 Dec 1789 a first prescript was voted through, ordering the result (in April 1790) of 400 million assignats, certificates of indebtedness of 1,000 livres each, with an interest rate of 5%, secured and repayable based on the auctioning of the "Biens nationaux".[92] Once the assignats were paid, they had to exist destroyed or burnt.

In January 1790, Necker obtained an order of arrest against Jean-Paul Marat, for having "had openly espoused the cause of the people, the poorest classes," according to Peter Kropotkin and Marat was forced to flee to London.[93] [94] On 10 March 1790, on the proposition Pétion, the administration of the church property was transferred to the municipalities.[95] In the past few months Étienne Clavière lobbied for large issues of assignats representing national wealth and operating every bit legal tender.[96] For daily life smaller denominations were needed and extended to the whole of France.[97] On 17 Apr 1790, the new notes of 200 and 300 livres were declared legal tender but their interest was reduced to 3%.[98] The assignats would compensate for the scarcity of coin and would revive industry and trade.[99]

In May 1790 the feudal and ecclesiastical properties were sold against assignats. Ramble monarchists such every bit Maury, Cazalès, Bergasse and d'Eprémesnil opposed it. The deputies in the Convention prepared a surety for future problems of paper money (on 19 June, 29 July).[100] Half of the taxes over the preceding yr were even so not received. People who earned more than 400 livres were invited to go to their municipality and fulfill their duty. As it was not the last cure he asked his friends, the Geneva "banquiers", to pay the deficit the Assembly turned information technology downwards.[101] The political scene came to be dominated past "insatiable spectators, passionate judges, and ungovernable agitators".[102] Necker was continuously attacked by Jean-Paul Marat in his pamphlets and by Jacques-René Hébert in his newspaper. Count Mirabeau, who played a decisive function in the Assembly, accused him of complete financial dictatorship.[103] For Mirabeau, to limited doubts in the assignats, was to express doubts in the revolution.[104]

At the stop of August the government was once again in distress; four months afterwards the first upshot the money was spent. Montesquiou-Fézensac, the instructor of Mirabeau, presented a written report in the Associates. Assignats should be used non only for payment of church property.[105]

Montesquiou had massively exaggerated the amount of the redeemable debt, probably to convince the Assembly.[106] On 27 August 1790 the Assembly decided some other effect of 1.nine billion assignats which would become legal tender before the finish of the year. Necker endeavored to dissuade the Assembly from the proposed result; suggesting that other ways could exist plant for accomplishing the effect, and he predicted terrible evils. Necker was not backed by Comte de Mirabeau, his strongest opponent who chosen for "national coin" and won that solar day.[107] A few crowds were sent to shout and threaten him.[108] When all resource were wearied, the Associates created paper coin, co-ordinate to Necker.[109] He handed in his resignation on 3 September.[110] The massive and dangerous issue of 1.9 billion he succeeded to get down to 800 meg, but the attacks influenced his resignation.[111] [112] Necker did not footstep down on the determination to make the assignat legal tender, but on the selection to consequence the newspaper coin for the full value of the land instead of 1-quarter of it, and a foul campaign against his person, and the loss of confidence in parliament.[113]

The Associates decreed that information technology would itself direct the public Treasury.[114] Necker foretold that the paper money, with which the dividends were most to be paid, would soon be of no value. Du Pont de Nemours feared the emission of assignats would double the price of bread.[115] [116] Since no one had truly the right to brand assignats, everyone would before long begin to exercise and then.[117] Montesquiou-Fézensac, charged with the event of assignats, feared stockjobbing and greed.[118] A proclamation (xiv Oct) suspending all involvement payments turned the assignats into fiat paper coin proper.[119]

Necker's efforts to keep the financial situation adrift were ineffective. His popularity vanished and he resigned with a damaged reputation.[120] [121] Necker left leaving two million livres in the public treasury; he took 1/5 of the corporeality with him.[122]

Retirement [edit]

Château de Coppet, vue partielle

Necker, suspected of reactionary tendencies, traveled east to Arcis-sur-Aube and Vesoul, where he was arrested, only on 11 September he was allowed to leave the country.[123] At Coppet Castle he occupied himself with political economic system, and constabulary. At the end of 1792, he published a brochure on the trial against Louis XVI. The Neckers were far from welcome in Geneva. Many of the French émigrés considered them Jacobins, and many of the Swiss Jacobins idea them conservative.[124] Initially living in Rolle, the Neckers moved to an apartment in Beaulieu Castle.[125] (In 1793 Necker moved considering of the installation of a revolutionary authorities in Geneva.) After being put on the list of Émigrés Necker was not paid any interest on the money he had left in the treasury.[126] His business firm in Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin, his manor in Saint-Ouen sûr Seine and the ii million livres were confiscated by the French government.[127] Mme Necker, who had ever seen herself as ill, sank into mental affliction. Since the birth of Germaine, she was correcting the most morbid clauses of her will and insisted to be embalmed by Samuel-Auguste Tissot, preserved and exhibited in a sleeping room for 4 months. [128] He connected to live under the intendance of his daughter. By 1794 France would exist flooded by false assignats. But his time was past, and his books had except abroad no political influence.[ citation needed ] In 1795 Germaine moved to Paris with Benjamin Constant, but she came back, sometimes involuntary, and founded the Cercle de Coppet.

In March 1798 a momentary excitement was caused by the French invasion of Switzerland when the city of Bern was attacked. Necker was treated with respect when the regular army passed his mansion. In July 1798 he was removed from the list of Émigrés.[129] [130] His house in the 9th arrondissement of Paris was sold to (or occupied by?) the husband of Juliette Récamier. Early June 1800 Necker met with Napoleon on his manner to Marengo. In confidence, Napoleon told him almost his plans to reestablish a monarchy in France. The publication of Necker'south "Final Views on Politics and Finance" in 1802 upset the showtime consul. He threatened to exile Madame de Staël from Paris because of this book.[131] [132] [133] Although Necker had never been a republican before, toward the end of his life, he engaged seriously with the project of creating and consolidating a republic "1 and indivisible" in France.[134] Necker and then foretold the suppression of the Tribunat equally it took place under the French Consulate. His merits of two million on the state treasury was not recognized past the French Senate.[135] Necker was buried side by side to his wife in the garden of Coppet Castle; the mausoleum was sealed in 1817 after Germaine had been buried there too. The Charter of 1814 signed by Louis XVIII at Saint-Ouen sûr Seine contained near all the manufactures in support of liberty proposed by Necker before the Revolution of 14 July 1789.[136] [137] Therefore, George Armstrong Kelly called him the "grandfather of Restoration Liberalism."[138]

"Posterity has not been fair to Necker", according to Aurelian Craiutu.[139] On 11 August 1792, the day after the Storming of the Tuileries, all the busts were removed from the town hall, including the one of Necker by Jean-Antoine Houdon and smashed.[140] Similar Mirabeau, the Marquis De Lafayette, Barnave and Pétion Necker was but temporarily supported by the people.[141] [142]

Personal life [edit]

His father, Karl Friedrich Necker, was a native of Küstrin in Neumark, Prussia (now Kostrzyn nad Odrą, Poland). Later publishing some works, Karl Friedrich was appointed in Geneva in 1724 as a professor in public police force. He started a boarding schoolhouse for young Englishmen, after assisted by his son Louis Necker, a mathematician and broker.

In 1786 Necker'southward daughter Germaine married Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein; she was to become a prominent figure in her own right and a leading opponent of Napoleon Bonaparte. On 22 March 1814, she was promised 21 years of interest on her father's investment in the public treasury.[143] After his death his daughter published "Vie privée de Mr. Necker". His grandson Auguste de Staël (1790 – 1827) edited the Complete Oeuvres by Jacques Necker.

His nephew Jacques Necker (1757-1825), a botanist, married Albertine Necker de Saussure. They took care of their uncle after his wife had died in 1794. Their son was the geologist and crystallographer Louis Albert Necker de Saussure.[144]

Places named after Jacques Necker [edit]

  • Necker Hospital for Children (Paris, France)
  • Necker Island (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands)
  • Necker center school (Coppet, Switzerland)

Works [edit]

  • Réponse au mémoire de M. l'abbé Morellet sur la Compagnie des Indes, 1769
  • Éloge de Jean-Baptiste Colbert, 1773
  • Sur la Législation et le commerce des grains, 1775
  • Mémoire au roi sur l'établissement des administrations provinciales, 1776
  • Lettre au roi, 1777
  • Compte rendu au roi, 1781
  • De l'Administration des finances de la France, 1784, three vol. in-8°
  • Correspondance de M. Necker avec M. de Calonne. (29 janvier-28 février 1787), 1787
  • De l'importance des opinions religieuses, 1788
  • De la Morale naturelle, suivie du Bonheur des sots, 1788
  • Supplément nécessaire à l'importance des opinions religieuses, 1788
  • Sur le compte rendu au roi en 1781 : nouveaux éclaircissements, 1788
  • Rapport fait au roi dans son conseil par le ministre des finances, 1789
  • Derniers conseils au roi, 1789
  • Hommage de K. Necker à la nation française, 1789
  • Observations sur l'avant-propos du « Livre rouge », 5. 1790
  • Stance relativement au décret de l'Assemblée nationale, concernant les titres, les noms et les armoiries, v. 1790
  • Sur fifty'assistants de Grand. Necker, 1791
  • Réflexions présentées à la nation française sur le procès intenté à Louis 16, 1792
  • Du pouvoir exécutif dans les grands États, 1792.
  • De la Révolution française, 1796. Tome 1 Tome 2
  • Cours de morale religieuse, 1800
  • Dernières vues de politique et de finance, offertes à la Nation française, 1802
  • Manuscrits de M. Necker, publiés par sa fille (1804)
  • Histoire de la Révolution française, depuis l'Assemblée des notables jusques et y compris la journée du 13 vendémiaire an IV (eighteen octobre 1795), 1821

Source: [145]

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville, p. iv
  2. ^ A Vocalization of Moderation in the Age of Revolutions: Jacques Necker's Reflections on Executive Power in Modern Gild by Aurelian Craiutu
  3. ^ Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter v". The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793. Translated by Due north. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
  4. ^ Stael and the French Revolution Introduction past Aurelian Craiutu
  5. ^ Macroeconomic Features of the French Revolution, by T.J. Sargent & F.R. Velde, p. 481
  6. ^ A Voice of Moderation in the Age of Revolutions: Jacques Necker's Reflections on Executive Power in Mod Gild, p. half dozen by Aurelian Craiutu
  7. ^ Brewster, David. The Edinburgh Encyclopædia, p. 316
  8. ^ Zeitgenossen. Biographieen und Charakteristiken p. 72
  9. ^ Lüthy, Herbert. Necker et la Compagnie des Indes
  10. ^ Réponse au Mémoire de Chiliad. l'Abbé Morellet, sur la Compagnie des Indes
  11. ^ Gordon, Daniel. Citizens without Sovereignty: Equality and Sociability in French Idea, p. 197
  12. ^ Keber, Martha Fifty. Seas of Gilt, Seas of Cotton wool: Christophe Poulain DuBignon of Jekyll Island p. 68
  13. ^ De Lapouge, Claude Vacher. Necker économiste, p.48
  14. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 23
  15. ^ Durant, Volition and Ariel (1967) Rousseau and Revolution, p. 865
  16. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 22
  17. ^ NECKER'S Starting time MINISTRY: 1776-81
  18. ^ Neckers Charakter und Privatleben: nebst seinen nachgelassenen ..., Band ane, p. 32
  19. ^ Simon Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (New York: Random House, 1989), p. 94.
  20. ^ Will and Ariel Durant (1967) Rousseau and Revolution, p. 866-867
  21. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville (2004) "La liquidation du 'dépôt' de Necker: entre concept et idée-force,", p. 154-155 Cahiers staëliens, 55
  22. ^ Sur l'administration de M. Necker, p. 365
  23. ^ Donald F. Swanson and Andrew P. Trout, "Alexander Hamilton, 'the Celebrated Mr. Neckar,' and Public Credit," The William and Mary Quarterly 47, no. 3 (1990): 424.
  24. ^ Will and Ariel Durant (1967) Rousseau and Revolution, p. 866-867
  25. ^ Will and Ariel Durant (1967) Rousseau and Revolution, p. 870
  26. ^ The French Revolution: An Economical Interpretation by Florin Aftalion, p. 23
  27. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 24
  28. ^ Jean-Denis Bredin (2004) "Necker, La French republic et la Gloire,", p. 15 Cahiers staëliens, 55
  29. ^ George Taylor, review of Jacques Necker: Reform Statesman of the Ancien Authorities, by Robert D. Harris, Journal of Economic History forty, no. 4 (1980): 878.
  30. ^ Annie Duprat, " Leonard Burnand, The pamphlet against Necker. Media and political imaginary to the xviiie century ", historical Record of the French Revolution [online], 361 | July–September 2010, published online 22 March 2011, accessed 14 Nov 2018. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/11742
  31. ^ Annie Duprat, " Leonard Burnand, The pamphlet against Necker. Media and political imaginary to the xviiie century ", historical Record of the French Revolution [online], 361 | July–September 2010, published online 22 March 2011, accessed 14 November 2018. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/11742
  32. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 24-25
  33. ^ Taylor, Jacques Necker: Reform, p. 877f.
  34. ^ Will and Ariel Durant (1967) Rousseau and Revolution, p. 870
  35. ^ S. Schama, p. 92-93
  36. ^ Francis Page (1797) Undercover History of the French Revolution from the Convocation of the Notables ... p. 271-273
  37. ^ The Edinburgh Encyclopædia; Conducted by David Brewster, p. 316
  38. ^ Schama, Citizens, 95.
  39. ^ Southward. Schama, p. 93
  40. ^ Considerations on the master events of the French Revolution Germaine de Staël
  41. ^ Tweede briev van Jan van Utrecht, p. 54
  42. ^ Annie Duprat, "Leonard Burnand, The pamphlet confronting Necker. Media and political imaginary to the xviiie century", historical Tape of the French Revolution [online], 361 | July–September 2010, published online 22 March 2011, accessed 14 November 2018. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/11742
  43. ^ The End of the Old Regime in Europe, 1776-1789, Role I: The Not bad States of ... past Franco Venturi, p. 348
  44. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville (2004) "La liquidation du 'dépôt' de Necker: entre concept et idée-force,", p. 204 Cahiers staëliens, 55
  45. ^ Zeitgenossen: Biograhien und Charakteristiken, Ausgaben one-four, p. 6
  46. ^ Considerations on the master events of the French Revolution Germaine de Staël
  47. ^ Veru, P. (2021). The French bonds: The little-known bidding war for France's holdings in American debt, 1786–1790. Financial History Review, 28(2), 259-280. doi:10.1017/S096856502100010X
  48. ^ The French Revolution: An Economical Estimation past Florin Aftalion, p. 25
  49. ^ The Problem with Necker's Compte Rendu au roi (1781) by Joël Félix
  50. ^ From Virtue to Surplus: Jacques Necker's Compte Rendu (1781) and the Origins of Modernistic Political Soapbox by Jacob Soll
  51. ^ The French Due east Republic of india Company
  52. ^ John Hardman (2016) The life of Louis XVI
  53. ^ Madame de Stael past Maria Fairweather
  54. ^ "Charles-Louis Ducrest (1747-1824)".
  55. ^ Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Affiliate 10". The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings. The distress in the city, however, increased from day to day. Information technology is true that Necker had taken measures to avert the dangers of a famine. On September vii, 1788, he had suspended the exportation of corn, and he was protecting the importation past bounties; seventy million livres were expended in the buy of foreign wheat. At the same time he gave widespread publicity to the decree of the King's Council of April 23, 1789, which empowered judges and officers of the constabulary to visit private granaries to make an inventory of the grain, and in case of necessity to send the grain to marketplace. But the carrying out of these orders was confided to the old authorities and-no more need be said!
  56. ^ Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter five". The Bully French Revolution, 1789-1793. Translated by Due north. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings. At Paris, after the dismissal of the Archbishop of Sens, at that place were numerous demonstrations. The Pont Neuf was guarded by troops, and several conflicts occurred between them and the people, of whom the leaders were, equally Bertrand de Moleville remarks,ix "those who later took function in all the popular movements of the Revolution." Marie-Antoinette's letter to the Count de Mercy should also exist read in this connexion. Information technology is dated August 24, 1788, and in it she tells him of her fears, and announces the retirement of the Archbishop of Sens and the steps she had taken to recall Necker; the effect produced on the Court past those riotous crowds can therefore be understood. The Queen foresaw that this call back of Necker would lessen the King'southward say-so; she feared "that they may be compelled to nominate a prime minister," but "the moment is pressing. Information technology is very essential that Necker should accept." Source: J. Feuillet de Conches, Lettres de Louis XVI, Marie-Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth (Paris, 1864), vol. i. pp. 214-216.
  57. ^ Will and Ariel Durant (1967) Rousseau and Revolution, p. 948
  58. ^ Madame de Stael by Maria Fairweather
  59. ^ Jacques Necker
  60. ^ Will and Ariel Durant (1967) Rousseau and Revolution, p. 949
  61. ^ Veru, P. (2021). The French bonds: The little-known bidding war for France'southward holdings in American debt, 1786–1790. Financial History Review, 28(ii), 259-280. doi:ten.1017/S096856502100010X
  62. ^ At Spes non Fracta: Hope & Co. 1770–1815, p. 46 by Thousand.Thousand. Buist
  63. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville (2004) "La liquidation du 'dépôt' de Necker: entre concept et idée-forcefulness,", p. 156 Cahiers staëliens, 55
  64. ^ Neckers Charakter und Privatleben: nebst seinen nachgelassenen ..., Ring 1, p. 83
  65. ^ Overture to Revolution: The 1787 Assembly of Notables and the Crisis of France's Old Regime. By John Hardman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  66. ^ Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 6". The Neat French Revolution, 1789-1793. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
  67. ^ Wikisource
  68. ^ Aurelian Craiutu (2012) A Virtue for Courageous Minds: Moderation in French Political Thought, 1748-1830, p. 119-121
  69. ^ R.D. Harris (1986) Necker and the Revolution of 1789, p. 433-434
  70. ^ Schama, Citizens, 345–46.
  71. ^ Aurelian Craiutu (2012) A Virtue for Courageous Minds: Moderation in French Political Idea, 1748-1830, p. 123
  72. ^ History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814 by M. Mignet
  73. ^ Will and Ariel Durant (1967) Rousseau and Revolution, p. 958
  74. ^ Aurelian Craiutu (2012) A Virtue for Mettlesome Minds: Moderation in French Political Idea, 1748-1830, p. 124
  75. ^ Gazette de Leyde - Livraison due north° 58 du 21 juillet 1789
  76. ^ Paris Amanda Spies-Gans, "'The Fullest Imitation of Life': Reconsidering Marie Tussaud, Artist-Historian of the French Revolution," Journal 18, Outcome 3 Lifelike (Bound 2017), http://www.journal18.org/1438. DOI: 10.30610/three.2017.viii
  77. ^ Godechot, Jacques. The Taking of the Bastille 14 July 1789.
  78. ^ De la Révolution française, Band 2 by Jacques Necker, p. 13
  79. ^ Briefe und Urkunden von Ludwig XVI., Marie Antoinette und Madame Elisabeth, p. 410
  80. ^ Gazette de Leyde - Livraison n° 63 du 7 août 1789
  81. ^ History of the French revolution of 1789, Band 1 , p. 568
  82. ^ Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 15". The Bully French Revolution, 1789-1793. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.
  83. ^ History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814 by G. Mignet
  84. ^ François Crouzet (1993) La grande inflation : La monnaie en France de Louis XVI à Napoléon, p. 97-98
  85. ^ Historical View of the French Revolution: From Its Primeval Indications to ... by Jules Michelet, p. 248
  86. ^ Crouzet, F. (1993) La grande inflation, p. 101
  87. ^ Crouzet, F. (1993) La grande inflation, p. 104-105
  88. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 64
  89. ^ The French Revolution: An Economic Interpretation by Florin Aftalion, p. 59
  90. ^ Stuff and Money in the Time of the French Revolution by Rebecca L. Spang
  91. ^ Historical View of the French Revolution: From Its Earliest Indications to ... past Jules Michelet, p. 288
  92. ^ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE ASSIGNATS, AND THE COUNTERFEITERS
  93. ^ Kropotkin, Peter (1909). "Affiliate 28". The Bully French Revolution, 1789–1793. Translated by Dryhurst, N. F. New York: Vanguard Printings.
  94. ^ Walter, Gérard (19 September 2012). Marat. Albin Michel. pp. 56–59. ISBN978-two-226-26096-three.
  95. ^ Crouzet, F. (1993) La grande inflation, p. 110
  96. ^ Whatmore, Richard (1996) "Commerce, Constitutions, and the Manners of a Nation: Etienne Clavière'south Revolutionary Political Economy, 1788–1793." History of European Ideas 22.v-vi (1996): 351–368. Web.
  97. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 95
  98. ^ The French Revolution: An Economic Interpretation by Florin Aftalion, p. xii
  99. ^ The French Revolution: An Economic Interpretation past Florin Aftalion, p. 80, 95
  100. ^ The French Revolution: An Economic Interpretation by Florin Aftalion, p. 76
  101. ^ Crouzet, F. (1993) La grande aggrandizement, p. 99
  102. ^ Aurelian Craiutu (2012) A Virtue for Courageous Minds: Moderation in French Political Thought, 1748-1830, p. 130
  103. ^ Simon Schama (1989) Citizens, p. 499, 536
  104. ^ Due east. Levasseur (1894) The Assignats: A Study in the Finances of the French Revolution, p. 183. In: Journal of Political Economy. Vol. two, No. 2
  105. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 77
  106. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 78
  107. ^ A.D. White (1878) The Assignat|Ann Arbor Library
  108. ^ Historical View of the French Revolution: From Its Earliest Indications to ... by Jules Michelet, p. 487
  109. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 84-85
  110. ^ Considerations on the chief events of the French Revolution Germaine de Staël, p. 256-258
  111. ^ Crouzet, F. (1993) La grande aggrandizement, p. 115
  112. ^ Histoire de la révolution française: depuis fifty'Assemblée des notables ... past Jacques Necker, p. 35
  113. ^ Histoire de la Révolution française par Henri Martin, p. 214
  114. ^ Historical View of the French Revolution: From Its Earliest Indications to ... by Jules Michelet, p. 487
  115. ^ The Money and the Finances of the French Revolution of 1789: Assignats and Mandats: A True History: Including an Test of Dr. Andrew D. White's Newspaper Money Inflation in France by Stephen Devalson Dillaye, p. 18
  116. ^ F. Aftalion, p. 81
  117. ^ Stuff and Coin in the Time of the French Revolution past Rebecca 50. Spang
  118. ^ Opinion de 1000. de Montesquiou sur les assignats-monnoie..., p. iii
  119. ^ THE HISTORY OF Economic THOUGHT WEBSITE
  120. ^ Furet and Ozuof, A Disquisitional Dictionary,288.
  121. ^ Doyle, William. The French Revolution. A Very Brusk Introduction.
  122. ^ Histoire de la révolution française: depuis l'Assemblée des notables ... past Jacques Necker, p. 31
  123. ^ Historical Review of the Administration of Mr. Necker by Jacques Necker, p. 373
  124. ^ The Encyclopedists every bit individuals: a biographical lexicon of the authors of the Encyclopédie
  125. ^ The Miscellaneous Works of Edward Gibbon: With Memoirs of His Life ..., Band 2 past Edward Gibbon, p. 460, 483
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  127. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville, p. 162-163
  128. ^ Celebrity and Terror: 7 Deaths Under the French Revolution by Antoine de Baecque
  129. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville, p. 169
  130. ^ Considerations on the principal events of the French Revolution by Germaine de Staël, p. 418-420
  131. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville, p. 169
  132. ^ by Madame de Staël, p. 35-36, 42
  133. ^ Considerations on the principal events of the French Revolution Germaine de Staël, p. 459
  134. ^ Aurelian Craiutu (2012) A Virtue for Mettlesome Minds: Moderation in French Political Thought, 1748-1830, p. 145
  135. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville, p. 177
  136. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville, p. 169
  137. ^ Considerations on the Chief Events of the French Revolution ..., Book 2 past Madame de Staël, p. 148
  138. ^ Kelly, George A. (1965). "Liberalism and Aristocracy in the French Restoration". Journal of the History of Ideas. 26 (four): 510. doi:10.2307/2708497. JSTOR 2708497.
  139. ^ A Vocalisation of Moderation in the Age of Revolutions: Jacques Necker's Reflections on Executive Power in Modern Social club by Aurelian Craiutu
  140. ^ Jean-Antoine Houdon: Sculptor of the Enlightenment by Anne Fifty. Poulet, p. 351
  141. ^ Jonathan Israel (2015) Revolutionary Ideas, p. ?
  142. ^ Positive principles of Mr. Neker, extracted from all his works
  143. ^ Othénin d'Haussonville, p. 195, 205
  144. ^ Biographical Index of Quondam Fellows of the Purple Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002 (PDF). The Royal Society of Edinburgh. July 2006. ISBN0-902-198-84-Ten.
  145. ^ "Jacques Necker (1732-1804) - Œuvres textuelles de cet auteur". Bibliothèque nationale de France.

Further reading [edit]

  • Furet, François, and Mona Ozuof. A Critical Lexicon of the French Revolution. (Belknap Press, 1989) pp 287–97
  • Harris, Robert D. Necker and the Revolution of 1789 (Lanham, Md, 1986)
  • Lefebvre, Georges. The French Revolution: From its Origins to 1793. London: Routledge Classics, 2001.
  • Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Random House, 1989, chapter Two, V: Terminal Best Hopes: The Broker
  • Swanson, Donald F, and Andrew P. Trout. "Alexander Hamilton, the Celebrated Mr. Neckar,' and Public Credit." The William and Mary Quarterly (1990) 47#3 pp 422–430. in JSTOR
  • Taylor, George. Review of Jacques Necker: Reform Statesman of the Ancien Regime, by Robert D. Harris. Periodical of Economic History 40, no. four (1980): 877–879. doi:10.1017/s0022050700100518
In French
  • (in French) Bredin, Jean-Denis. Une singulière famille: Jacques Necker, Suzanne Necker et Germaine de Staël. Paris: Fayard, 1999 (ISBN two-213-60280-8).

External links [edit]

  • "Necker, Jacques". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). 1911.
  • Jacques Necker. Bibliography of Necker's publications.
  • Total text of Principes positifs de M. Neker … Positive principles of Mr. Neker, extracted from all his works

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker

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